美國文化英語論文匯總十篇

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篇（1）

Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. The Characteristics of Black English 2

2.1 Phonetics 2

2.2 Grammar 3

3. The Influence on American Culture 7

3.1 The Influence on American English 7

3.2 The Influence on American Art 9

3.3 The Influence on American Literature 11

4. The Practical Significance of Black English 14

5. Conclusion 15

Acknowledgements 16

References 17

 

1．Introduction

Black English is a social dialect of American English, and it has been historically influenced by West African languages, General Southern American English and English-based creoles.

 This kind of English shares several characteristics with the forms of Creole English spoken by people throughout the whole world. In addition, it also has pronunciation, grammatical structures, and vocabulary in common with various West African languages.[1]198 Since a large number of Black people migrate to America and they have the percentage of more than 12%, [2]496the Black English has been popularized in this country. But in the American society, people seldom realize the influence and contribution of Black English and they never give the equal state to Black people. In fact, the language and culture of American reflect the contributions of the Black English in many aspects, such as linguistic, art and literature.

Nowadays, it is reasonably acceptable to say that Black English is not only an independent language but also making practical significance to American English and the American Culture. Researchers need to study the significance in details. So this paper intends to collect the study of the characteristics of Black English, and then summarize its influences on the American English. Since the change of language can lead changes in other aspects, such as Art and Literature aspects, this paper also states the influence in detailed options.

The method of this paper is reviewing the past study and surveys, not just from the linguistic point of view or the historical aspects of Black English, but from its formation and characteristics to demonstrate the existence and development of Black English and the practical significance. Through the analysis of Black English on the profound impact of American culture, the paper advances a view on the value of Black English and its prospects. Finally it puts forward the importance and necessity of enhancing learning and research on Black Culture as the continuous improvement and economic conditions of Black people.

2. The Characteristics of Black English

Black English, as a unique variant of English, has many differences with the Standard English based on the structure of language. And this paper tends to discuss the features of Black English in phonetics and grammar aspects. Since Black English is not just a simplified version of English, it has a unique language system with the same fixed structure as any other dialect all over the world.

2.1 Phonetics

Most Black people use a distinctive English variant. This black dialect has aroused many linguists’ interests. Repeatedly been labeled as “pidgin English”, Black English’s role in the development of American Culture can not be questioned. Black English as a source of Black Culture has always been paid more attention by linguists and sociologists in nowadays.

2.1.1 The Weakened Consonant

Because of the influence of West African, some voiced consonants are the same with their form of voiceless consonant. Word-final devoicing of /b/, /d/, and /g/ are always pronounced to //, //, //, and in most cases these phonemes are ignored. In order to make a difference between them, sometimes the vowel before the voiced consonants could be slightly re-read harder, take the “heat and heed”, “let and led” and “fate and fade” which is ended with the word “e” as examples.

In the syllables which are combined with consonants and vowels, some nasals can also be weakened, such as “sum, sun, sung”, and only the vowel // in the word which is somewhat influenced by the nasal.

2.1.2 The Omission of Consonant Clusters

    The simplification of Consonant Clusters is an obvious feature of Black English. The mutes in English are //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //, //. Black English often omit the mutes in the end of a word, and the word “side”// is always pronounced to “sigh”//. This kind of omission is not arbitrary, and it is decided by the situation of pronouncing a word: when the mute at the end only represents the morpheme is not connected, for example, the frequency of reserving // is higher than integral part of the stem in the word “borrow”. It will also be reserved if there is vowel behind the mute, such as the first “d” in the phrase “tried hard”.

2.1.3 The Pronunciation of // and //

The omission of // is a notable characteristic of Black English. In American, it is a tendency of underclass to omit // before vowels but not only of Black English.[3]297Because of this kind of omission, there is no differences between “guard-god”, “fort-fought” and “sore-saw” in Black English.When // is between two vowels, the syllable after it needn’t be pronounced, as “Paris” could be read as//; when there is a word beginning with vowel behind it, the // could also be regretted.

// is voiceless before the consonant, such as the word “health” always be pronounced to // and so on. However, when // is after the vowel as the end of the word, it is assimilated by the phoneme before it, such as the similar pronunciation with “mail” and “may”//. In addition, // is voiceless before // and //, as “always”//, “already” //. The more interesting thing is that they pronounce “will” to “ah”，for example, “I ah be there in a minute.” While the correct form in Standard English is “I will be there in a minute.”

2.1.4 The Pronunciation of // and //

In Black English, // is always pronounced as // and // is always pronounced as //, for example, “think” is pronounced to be //. While the // in the end of a word is transformed to //, and “mouth” is pronounced to be //, “nothing” is to //. In addition, the “th” in the middle of a word is always pronounced to be //, so “mother” is to //, “other” is to //, and “brother” is to //.

Actually, there are many more characters than mentioned in the paper, but we can recognize the differences of phonetics between Black English and Standard English just from the mentioned examples.

 Smith Thurman, a well-known expert in Black English, said that black dialect used same number of English phonemes with white, and the only difference is the distribution pattern of phoneme.[4]553

2.2 Grammar

    There are also many researches who have found the special usage in grammar of Black English. For example, the different meanings in the sentences “He workin’” and “He done worked” are hard to be explained by the Standard English. The first means “He is working 253.It also indicates the difference between Simple progressive and emphasized perfective. Not only the tense plays a different role in the grammar, there are many other points such as the relative usage of the word “be”, the negation and transmission of the word.

2.2.1 Tense

    Syntax best embodies the characteristics of Black English. In the verb-system, the differences between Black English and Standard English are most significant, which is most similar with pidgin and Creole their ancestors used. In Black English, the only duty of the verb in the sentence is to indicate the time concept of one or a few verbs, and other verbs can be expressed in verb stem. Sometimes when the context gives essential temporal support, the tense can be totally regretted. For example, in the following section of black sermons, the Preacher has made it clear that he is talking about the past, because both the life and devotion of Jesus have already happened: “The man Jesus，he come your sins! He the thieves and here. He die to walk the earth. He you from go among try to Save the unrighteous. The master say whoever will let him come!”

In addition, the singular verb of third person in Present Tense is not ended with “s”, for example, “She work in the factory”.

Black English has two Perfect Tenses: “Remote Perfect aspect” which is constituted by the “been” and “Immediate Perfect aspect” constituted by “done”. At this point, Black English and West African languages is extremely similar. [6]

    (i) The “been” in “remote perfect aspect” has a certain meaning of action in past tense. And this kind of perfect tense could be divided into two forms: I been know him(momentary action), I been knowin’-him.(ongoing action).

    (ii) “Immediate Perfect aspect” uses the auxiliary verb “done”. In modern Black English, following sentence are commonly used:

    ① I done go.

    ② I done went.

③ I done gone.

    These three are used in different situations:

    ① Used in the Immediate Present sentences.

    ② Used in the Simple Past sentences.

    ③ Used in the semi adjective structures.

2.2.2 Relative usage of “be”

The usage of“be”in Black English is also very special. If one action, thing or state does not happen frequently, the“be”in this sentence will be deleted. For example, “he in the house -watchin’ TV”. The abbreviation of the copula such as “is” and “are” can also be deleted. In addition, when in a passive sentence the passive voice is not expressed so clearly by the speaker, “be” can also be deleted, for example, “the factory built in 1958”. However if the action happens frequently, “be” can be used as the predicate verb in the sentence“they be out in the yard every night.”

When“be” and“do” work together means this kind of thing happens frequently in the Interrogative sentences and Emphatic sentences. For example, “Do you be playing all day?” (Do they play all day?) “Yeah, the boys do mess around a lot.”(Yeah, the boys do mess around a lot.) Famous linguist William Labov researched a lot in the Black English and concluded that: all the“be”which can appear in the forming of abbreviation can be deleted in Black English. [7]113Actually, the usage of “be”is far more complex than this conclusion which is easily got from the above descriptions. 

2.2.3 Negation

There are three different versions of negation in Black English: “ain’t”, “don’” and “dit’n”, which can be written as “ain’t”, “don’t” and “didn’t”. While the special usage of “ain’t” is a feature of Black English. Ain not is a negative form in past tense: I ain’t see. In a sentence, the negation always repeated: I ain’t see nothin’ like that no place. The meaning is equivalent of: I did not see anything like that anywhere. (I’ve never seen this kind of thing in any place.) When the predicate is not active verb, ain’t become the only symbol of negation. For example, I ain’t afraid of nothing. He ain’t gonna get no money out of it. Besides, it can be combined with "ing" and make up the present continuous tense. For example, we ain’t kidding and we ain’t quitting, we ain’t turning back. 

The function of “ain’t” in Black English is same with the “haven’t” in Standard English. Therefore the “We haven’t contacted each of her since last Christmas.” can be evolved to “We ain’t contacted each of her since last Christmas.” Sometimes, “ain’t” can replace the phrase “didn’t” in simple negation sentence. So in Black English, sentences can be like following forms: “She ain’t email me yesterday.” The young boy insisted, “I ain’t steal his wallet.” “I ain’t run like that in years.”

Multi-negation means there is not only one symbol of negation. Under this regulation, the pronoun needs to add some mark of negation.

For example: “She ain’t see any thing/ anyone at the railway station” can be changed into “She ain’t see nothing/ nobody at the railway station”. If the subject is “nobody” but not “he” or “Janet”, it will add negative determiner at the beginning of the sentence. This is called “negative inversion” by linguists. As a result, it is very common to hear that “Didn’t nobody say nothing to the peoples!”

3. The Influence on American Culture

An important contribution of Black English is the influence on the American Culture. The familiar “negro spiritual”, the unusual rhythms and the famous performance in movie and literature —all these originated with the slaves. It is said that what is the best and most original in American popular culture has its roots in Black English. Important black speakers, singers, actors and writers are too numerous to list.

3.1 The Influence on American English

He Ruigao expresses his opinion in his article Black English that there are some differences in certain aspects of language between Black English and American English. And he believes that after all, Black English is a variant of English, so the differences are only in some degree rather than fundamental, and do not affect the people’s contacts.

It is clear that there is a strong relationship between Black English and American English, while the distinct characters of Black English are not fully explained and its origins are still a matter of debate. One theory is that Black English arose from one or more slave creoles that arose from the trans-Atlantic African slave trade and the need for African captives to communicate among themselves and with their captors.  According to this theory, these captives’ language developed into what are called pidgins, simplified mixture of two or more languages. As pidgins are from closely contact between members of different language communities, the slave trade would have been exactly such a situation. Not until the time of the American Civil War did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated whites. As the time passes, the Black English gradually plays an important role in the United States and U.S. Culture.

3.1.1 The Forming of Black English

In the slave society, there are so many different languages that the natives on two sides of the river cannot understand each other. But the safest way for them to keep their authority is to trade with the different nations on both sides of the river. The famous writer, Cotton Mather, claimed to have been very familiar with his slaves’ speech, and his imitative writing shows features presented in many Creole languages and even in modern Black English. By the time of the American Revolution, varieties among slave creoles were not quite mutually intelligible.

Not until the time of the American Civil War did the language of the slaves become familiar to a large number of educated whites. In Army Life in a Black Regiment (1870), Thomas Wentworth Higginson detailed many features of his soldiers' language. Shana Poplack has also provided corpus-based evidence from isolated enclaves in Samaná and Nova Scotia lived by descendants of migrations of early Black English-speaking groups. All of these researches suggest that the grammar of early Black English is closer to that of contemporary British dialects than modern urban Black English to current American dialects. We can find that the modern language is a result of divergence from mainstream varieties, rather than the result of creolization from a widespread American creole. 

3.1.2 The Relations with the American English

In United States, blacks worked in this land with the identity of slaves and inherited some habits from the African culture and language, and thus gradually formed a black American society with unique culture. While the communication between the black slaves and the slavers became a major hub linking the two cultures, and produced a subtle influence to American English, which mainly reflected in English words borrowed, as well as the meaning of the word twists and turns, and the absorption of idioms. Its pronunciation is, in some respects, common to Southern American English, which is spoken by many African Americans and many non-African Americans in the United States.

There is little regional variation among speakers of Black English.89 In order to understand the United States and American culture, and to acquire its development, Blacks melt their culture, such as language, literature and art, with those of the United States. Later, Black English is not only for Black people, it is still widely used by a number of regional dialects. Even in literature works, authors often use Black English to show the hero's nationality, identity and upbringing.

Not only the phonetics and grammar of Black English prove the influence to American language, but we can also achieve it from the assertion of Black English. For example, “the blacker the berry, the sweeter the juice” means “she is very mature and favorable”. Another example, “you aren’t got a pot to piss in on a window to throw I tout of” means that you are very pool. “If I tell you a hen hip snuff, look under its wing and find a whole box” means that all you said is true. “You never miss yo water till yo well run dry” means that “you will never feel the importance of water until you are very thirst”.[10]6-7 The representative assertion is very lively and meaningful, suggesting the wisdom of the Black English.

3.2 The Influence on American Art

When Blacks live in Africa, they have the hobby to sing and dance during laboring. But then they are later taken away as slaves by the colonists to the southern United States plantation. They work in the fields wearing shackles and live in the primitive hut in the deserted swamp and jungle. But due to this kind of suffering, they create a valuable oral literature including hymns and blues and other Black Art, which has made an outstanding contribution to the culture to the United States.

3.2.1 The Integration with Music 

    It is generally believed that music of blacks has some distinctive forms from American music like American Ragtime, Blues, Jazz, Musical and Country music. Ragtime was first played by a black Anonymous piano, which was very popular in the late 19th century to early 20th century. It uses segmentation rhythm, trying to evolve from the popular dance music of blacks, and then Ragtime music appears. Scott. Joplin is one of the Ragtime representatives, and his performance of “Maple Leaf pull tone” has been a smash hit, which is so famous that all of the Ragtime pianist would play in their shows.

Blues is from field horn and songs with a strong feeling of African tradition and its tunes are always sad. The most famous Blues singer is Bessie Smith, known as Blues Queen. When Ragtime, Blues and other tunes with rich colors of Africa's influence add together with the elements in Europe, the Jazz comes into being.  

With the integration of grammar, the ways people sing a song become various in American. Many young people jump into the swim of “rap” and “hip-hop”, which is considered as a really fashion style to express one song and the soul. While among the most famous masters, more than 90 percent are black people, such as the episode in Prison Break.

The word “rap” meant “blame” in the middle of 18th century and was always used in phrase in the 19th, “to take the rap” meant “to take the blame”. After the civil war, black people used it to blame white people and requested the equality with them. And finally it replaced the word “conversation” to be popular among the white teenagers. There are many simplifications of words in “rap” which become totally different with American English. For example, the “er” in the end of word is changed into “a”, “nigger” into “nigga”.[11]185 Besides, the “ks” or “cks” in the end of a word can be replaced by “x” because they have the same pronunciation. All of these examples prove that it has become a new version of grammar in American English. For example, the “re” or “e” which can’t be heard during a speedy song are always omitted such as “more” and “mo”, “for” and “fo”, or the number “4”. The omission of “g” in “ing” is another new grammar in American English.

Some words also change its pronunciation. For example, in the word “through”, “gh” never being pronounced is know to all, since we pronounce “th” // in stead of // there is no difference in pronunciation with the word “true”.

In the “rap”, the Black English has many distinct characters and its lyrics tend to be more fashion and creative. Most of these new word are very short or the abbreviation of some long words so that even the local Americans can not understand. In order to keep its character of fashion, “rap” uses word on the point of fashion. Therefore, the characteristics of Black English are the foundation of “rap”, which makes it no longer a simple style of music but a diverse style.

3.2.2 The Integration with Film 

Film is an integrated form of art, with combination of test technology, art and commerce, and the thought of images it brings to the human mind is revolutionary. Because it's easy to be accepted, the film is destined to be a mass media on hundreds of millions people when it appears. In a short century, Hollywood becomes a symbol of American mass culture, and the influence on American society is immeasurable.

Film expresses and promotes the life style and values of Americans. During the war era, it boosts moral e of the soldiers. While in the Depression era, it could replace the cash of the American dream and reflected the public's ideals and dreams. In this case, blacks also express their dream to achieve the equality in the American society through the film, such as Shaw shank Redemption, the Pursuit of Happiness and Death Pact and so on. Because of the success of these works and the influence on future, some later generations continued to collect and summarize the classic dialogue in these black films, and to commemorate the black culture for future generations to study at the same time.

There are two characteristics of grammar which can be easily found in the black films.First is the invariant of “be”, and second is the multi-negation of“ain’t”.The invariant of“be”is used before verb, adjective, noun and passive voice in Black English.

(i)Your gas bill be high, don’t it? (Your gas bill is usually high, isn’t it?)

(ii) My boss be in his office by 8am. (My boss is usually in his office by 8am.)

(iii)It don’t be dogged. I grease it and oil it. (It isn’t usually dogged, I grease it and oil it.)

Laurel Avenue (1993) is a story about a family’s effort to counter drug, faction and violence in order to achieve the “American Dream”. In the film, when Rashhawn’s uncle blamed on his sailing drug, he said that “What the hell I be giving you money fuh[for ]？” while his word can also be translated to “Do you know why I always give you money ? ”

It is worthy to mention that this kind of grammar in the film is also very popularized by young Latinos. Therefore, the Black English users have crossed the racial boundaries and expanded to the crowd who are favor of hip hop culture.

The multi-negation of “ain’t” can be fully realized in the most influential black filmmaker Spike Lee’s masterpiece Do the Right Thing. The story happened in Brooklyn, New York, and demonstrated an explosion caused by the ethnic problems. There are a large number of unique performances of Black English in the dialogues:   “Ain’t no brothers on the wall? I ain’t run like that in years. Don’t call me no bum. Jade don’t come here no more, all right? Don’t call me nothing.”

Although many so-called “not standard”regulations of Black English have been criticized for a long time, its expression is an important means to promote Black Culture of the Hollywood directors and become a beautiful view in American films.

3.3 The Influence on American Literature

In the destiny of black, there must be a clearly visible way, on which they have worked with effort to win dignity and literary. Through their effort, it exhibited such a road as well as those marks in relation to life along the way: once in Black history, unforgettable pain is essential for the experience to the results today. Black Literature, in the United States and the world, has been mainly as slaves, especially in countries outside Africa.

The Black English writer Toni Morrison was born in black family, and later achieved today’s scholars and writer’s identity by reading. In 1993, because of her “making the important part of American society much more vigorously through the rich poetic imagination and expression”, she won the Nobel Prize for Literature, and became the only black women writer in history to be honored.

Not only the Black Literature but also the American Literature has these characters of Black English in their works.

The Sound and the Fury (1929) is written by a famous American writer William Faulkner (1897-1962). The first part, “April 7th, 1928”, describes the conversation and action between the children in the farm waiting for the coming of procession.

“I skeered I going to holler,” T.P said.

“Get on the box and see is they started.”

“They haven’t started because the band hasn’t come yet.” Caddy said.

“They ain’t going t have no band.” Frony said.

“How do you know?” Caddy said.

“I know what I knows,” Frony said.

“You don’t know anything,” Caddy said.

“She went to the tree.”

“Put me up,” Versh.

“Your paw told you to stay out that tree,” Versh said.

“That was a long time ago,” Caddy said,

“I except he’s forgotten about it, besides he said to mind me tonight. Didn’t he say to mind me tonight?”

“I’m not going to mind you, T .P and Frony are not going to either,” Jason said.[12]4

The children in this conversation turn out to be totally different between T.P, Frony, Versh and Caddy, Jason. The dialogue of the first three people has some characters of Black English. For example, “be” in the sentence “I (am) skeered (that) I (am ) going to holler” which is the distinct signal of Black English. On the contrary, the conversation of Candy and Jason do not omit this part as Jason says that “I’m not going to mind you，TP and Frony are not going to either”. And the singular verb of third person even does not have any difference with first person or any one else in the sentence “I know what I knows”. In addition, the mixture of // and // of the word “git” in the sentence “got on the box” is very common in Black English. It turns out that T.P, Frony and Versh are children of black in the farm, while Caddy and Jason are children of the farmer.

On the other hand, many black people like Frederick and William, not only struggle to learn the culture, but also use the pen as a weapon after the flight. They took active part in the abolitionist movement and expressed positive public opinions. Slave owner always treat Black people as the inferior race, so Black people’s ability to carry out literature itself is a powerful evidence of that lie, let alone the rich ideological content in their articles. And all of these proof that Black people is an excellent nation with a historical cultural tradition on the literature and their language also plays an irreplaceable role in the development of American literature.

4. The Practical Significance of Black English

In1863， 2 years before the war ended, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation freed the slaves in the Confederate states. Shortly after the war ended in 1865, the thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution freed all slaves. A few years later, the fourteenth and fifteenth Amendments gave the former slaves full civil rights, including giving African-American men the right to vote.[13]77

In politics, more blacks are voting, and more are getting elected. Since 40 years ago, the Black middle-class group has risen from scratch and grown in their standard of living. There are no difference in professional skills and educational background with the white middle class. Outstanding representatives of Black people appear in many areas of the United States, such as the Black mayor, governor, ministers and members of Congress, and all of them are no longer surprise to us. The much more important thing is that Democratic candidate Barack Obama won the U.S. presidential election in 2008 to become the first real chance to win the presidency in the Black.

Blacks are also trying to improve their financial position by going into professions or starting their own business. There are now more than 600,000 black-owned companies in the U.S. and blacks are more numerous than ever in the professions-as teachers, doctors, lawyers, judges and ministers.

In 1952, Ralph Ellison, a black author, wrote a book about blacks in the U.S. called the Invisible Man. Since the 1960s, blacks have become more visible on TV and in movies and magazines. Networks, filmmakers and advertisers now realize that black consumers want to see their race represented. Today, blacks in significant numbers work as newscasters, TV actors and actresses, and movie stars.

Huang Weifeng says in his African American English on a Number of Historical Issues that, “Only when the racism in American society has been completely eradicated from the mind, the Black Cultural expressions of Black English can really be recognized.”81

5. Conclusion

“Black English” is widely used as the name because it is used by Black people. In fact, its user of this language is far beyond our imagination. In addition to the external community in the black population, it is also used by lower middle and low classes in America. It has profound impacts on American culture and communication in various aspects, especially with the continuous improvement of their political, economic and cultural status, and Black English has been paid more and more attention. In view of this, the paper starts to explore the formation and characteristics of its existence and development. It is said that the view of helping people understand the Black Culture correctly, the concept of eliminating the racial discrimination and enhancing the awareness to protect national culture plays an important role to cultural exchanges and cultural diversity.

The above discussion of Black English is by no means comprehensive but it can serve our purpose to improve the regulation and state of Black English. The significance of studying the nature of Black English is really multifaceted. While the most direct one is the significance for lingu istic research. The attitude to the question that whether Black English is a dialect or a language determines the methods of research. This paper argues that Black English is essentially a separate system and its significance to the American Culture. It should be researched as an independent study of language. [17]34

Undoubtedly, the Black English makes Black people more dramatic in the movies. The syntax rules and special vocabulary of Black English, which are incompatible with the mainstream of English, become the foundation of their culture with their bold dance and passive music. Although most black people using Black English live in the southern United States and the countries, those well-educated middle-class blacks also use Black English in some informal gatherings.

With the black music, novels and movies continuously mix into the mainstream of American society, the syntax rules and special vocabulary of Black English begin to be accepted by American English and become parts of the American culture. Because of the worldwide spread of English and increasingly prosperous Black Culture, the Black English will be more widely active in screen as a mature variation of English and an important way to display the diverse culture of the United States.

Acknowledgements

My initial thanks go to my tutor, Wu Qing, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.

I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books.

       My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.

The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.

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[13] 張衛(wèi)平. 美國制度與文化[M]. 中國人民大學(xué)出版社, 2006.

[14] 黃衛(wèi)峰. 對現(xiàn)代英語詞匯學(xué)的兩處質(zhì)疑[J]. 云夢學(xué)刊, 2003.

[15] 侯維瑞. 英國英語與美國英語[M]. 上海外語教育出版社, 1992.

[16] 張衛(wèi)平. 美國制度與文化[M]. 中國人民大學(xué)出版社, 2006.

[17] 葛詠濤. 美國文化風(fēng)云人物[M]. 四川大學(xué)出版, 2007.

 

誠 信 承 諾

我謹(jǐn)在此承諾：本人所寫的畢業(yè)論文《論黑人英語對美國文化的影響及其現(xiàn)實意義》均系本人獨立完成，沒有抄襲行為，凡涉及其他作者的觀點和材料，均作了注釋，若有不實，后果由本人承擔(dān)。

 

篇（2）

關(guān)鍵詞： 論文標(biāo)題；經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)；體裁分析；對比研究；二語寫作

Key words： research article titles; economics; genre analysis; contrastive analysis; second language writing

中圖分類號：G23文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼：A文章編號：1006-4311（2011）18-0304-03

0引言

近十余年來，隨著對學(xué)術(shù)語篇研究的興起，語言學(xué)家越來越重視體裁分析方法在這一領(lǐng)域的應(yīng)用，并形成了以John Swales （1990） 為代表的語步分析法，其對學(xué)術(shù)語篇前言進(jìn)行了實證研究提出了CARS Model。隨后引發(fā)了學(xué)者們的濃厚興趣，他們將注意力集中于學(xué)術(shù)語篇的不同部分，例如，Lores （2004）和Martin（2003）研究了學(xué)術(shù)語篇的摘要部分，Homes（1997）研究了學(xué)術(shù)論文討論部分，Yang和Allison （2003）研究了學(xué)術(shù)論文的結(jié)論部分，等等。本文將針對學(xué)術(shù)論文的標(biāo)題部分進(jìn)行對比研究，其方法也是體裁分的實證研究方法，目的在于發(fā)現(xiàn)國內(nèi)外經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)期刊英語標(biāo)題的結(jié)構(gòu)特點，并能夠?qū)χ袊鴮W(xué)者撰寫英語標(biāo)題提供參考。

1學(xué)術(shù)論文標(biāo)題研究綜述

80年代末以來，以“體裁分析之父”（Pérez-Llantada， 2004：140）John Swales （1990） 為代表的體裁分析法（genre analysis）的研究范式逐漸確立其在學(xué)術(shù)語篇的語言學(xué)研究中的地位。在1990年，John Swales 指出標(biāo)題是學(xué)術(shù)體裁研究中被忽視的一個方面之一。隨著學(xué)者們對標(biāo)題研究的關(guān)注與日俱增，研究成果不斷涌現(xiàn)。Yitzhaki （1997）比較了18種不同人文學(xué)科期刊的論文標(biāo)題中的實詞數(shù)量目的在于檢驗學(xué)術(shù)論文標(biāo)題的信息密集性。Busch-Lauer (2000) 分別對比了醫(yī)學(xué)和語言學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的英語和德語標(biāo)題，發(fā)現(xiàn)醫(yī)學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的標(biāo)題長度比語言學(xué)內(nèi)的論文標(biāo)題的字?jǐn)?shù)明顯要多一些，并且確證了以德語為母語的學(xué)者習(xí)慣于用德語的思維方式撰寫標(biāo)題，同時發(fā)現(xiàn)了所有的標(biāo)題在兩個領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的作用都是交際功能的作用。Laurence Anthony（2001）通過對計算機(jī)領(lǐng)域期刊中600個論文標(biāo)題的長度，標(biāo)點使用，介詞使用和詞頻進(jìn)行了研究，結(jié)果表明，計算機(jī)學(xué)科的論文標(biāo)題有其自身的特點，例如，他發(fā)現(xiàn)介詞和冠詞在此類標(biāo)題中出現(xiàn)的頻率最高，其中介詞for在所選的6種期刊中的4種當(dāng)中出現(xiàn)的頻率最高。最終得出的結(jié)論是計算機(jī)科學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的標(biāo)題有其自身的特點，但是同時也提出，論文標(biāo)題的特點因?qū)W科不同而有差異，這樣的普遍性結(jié)論有待進(jìn)一步的研究。隨后在2002年Yitzhaki又研究了24個重要期刊的論文標(biāo)題與論文長度的關(guān)系，同時做了歷時比較的研究，發(fā)現(xiàn)文章長度和論文標(biāo)題長度的關(guān)系是因科學(xué)類別的不同而不同，在所謂“硬”科學(xué)內(nèi)標(biāo)題長度與文章長度的相關(guān)性較“軟”科學(xué)更強(qiáng)。Haggan （2004）則是同時分別比較研究了文學(xué)，語言學(xué)和理科科學(xué)的論文標(biāo)題的結(jié)構(gòu)特點。她將標(biāo)題按形式分為句子型，名詞型和短語型三類。研究結(jié)果顯示出三個不同領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的標(biāo)題都互不相同，各有特點，同時指出標(biāo)題的功能在于引起讀者閱讀文章的興趣。Hartley （2005c，2007a，2007b）從不同方面探討了論文標(biāo)題的特點或功能：一、指出論文標(biāo)題應(yīng)當(dāng)同時具有傳遞信息和吸引讀者的作用；二、將論文標(biāo)題按功能重新分類，共有12類并且分析了各類的特點和功能；三、研究了冒號在學(xué)術(shù)論文中的使用偏好。最近的研究是Soler （2007）對研究型學(xué)術(shù)論文和綜述型學(xué)術(shù)論文的標(biāo)題結(jié)構(gòu)的實證研究。在570個標(biāo)題中，480個為研究型論文標(biāo)題，90個是綜述型論文標(biāo)題，時間跨度從1996年至2002年，涉及的學(xué)科領(lǐng)域是生物學(xué)和社會學(xué)，她將標(biāo)題按結(jié)構(gòu)分為句子型，問句型，名詞詞組型和復(fù)合型，同時還對標(biāo)題的長度進(jìn)行了研究，結(jié)果表明，綜述型標(biāo)題的長度在兩個領(lǐng)域都非常的短，復(fù)合型標(biāo)題是社會科學(xué)體裁研究型論文標(biāo)題的特點。句子型標(biāo)題是研究型論文標(biāo)題的文章類型的特點，尤其是生物學(xué)領(lǐng)域內(nèi)的研究型論文標(biāo)題的特點。

國內(nèi)的標(biāo)題研究主要分為兩類：漢英單語種獨立研究和漢語標(biāo)題的英譯。例如王英格（1993）研究了英語學(xué)術(shù)論文標(biāo)題的語法和修辭特點。化柏林（2007）對圖書情報學(xué)類核心期刊論文標(biāo)題進(jìn)行了計量研究，共對42989篇文獻(xiàn)的標(biāo)題進(jìn)行統(tǒng)計分析，涉及到標(biāo)題長度，句型以及標(biāo)題中相關(guān)詞匯的研究，如題首詞，題尾詞，關(guān)鍵詞等。而論文標(biāo)題的漢英翻譯的研究有，段萍和顧維萍（2002）的關(guān)于醫(yī)學(xué)論文的標(biāo)題和摘要的漢譯英的常見錯誤的分析的研究，周永模（2002）的關(guān)于哲學(xué)和人文社會科學(xué)的論文標(biāo)題的漢譯英的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的探討。另外，值得一提的是王成宇（2003）對英漢雙語的疑問型學(xué)術(shù)論文標(biāo)題進(jìn)行的對比研究。

綜上所述，學(xué)術(shù)論文的標(biāo)題研究成果逐漸豐碩，本文將就前人的研究成果繼續(xù)深化和推進(jìn)學(xué)術(shù)論文標(biāo)題的研究，基本的研究思路是以體裁為切入點，即語言學(xué)類研究型學(xué)術(shù)論文；英英對比，其特點在于中國學(xué)者的英文標(biāo)題和國際學(xué)者的英文標(biāo)題的對比；以及采用實證研究方法。

2研究方法

首先本文選取了中美經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)兩本在各自學(xué)術(shù)共同體中的權(quán)威期刊：中國的《經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)（季刊）》（China Economic Quarterly (CEQ)）和美國麻省理工學(xué)院（MIT）的Quarterly Journal of Economics (QJE)。建立了一個含有548個英語科研原創(chuàng)論文標(biāo)題的語料庫，其中CEQ 中隨機(jī)選取311 個標(biāo)題，QJE 中隨機(jī)選取237個標(biāo)題。按照語料庫的建庫原則以及對比語言學(xué)的可比性原則，標(biāo)題的選取時間跨度為2004至2009年（由于研究時間限制，2009年只收集部分標(biāo)題），且不包括書評類以及其他體裁類型的文章標(biāo)題。其次本文將所選標(biāo)題分為五大類：名詞詞組型（Noun Phrase [NP]）, 復(fù)合型（Compound [CP]）即一個標(biāo)題由兩部分組成，中間被冒號或其他符號隔開, 句子型（Full-sentence [FS]）, 動詞詞組型（Verbal Phrase [VP]）, 以及介詞詞組型（Prepositional Phrase [PP]）。另外，本文還進(jìn)一步細(xì)分了名詞詞組型標(biāo)題和復(fù)合型標(biāo)題，同時還統(tǒng)計了本語料庫中的NP和CP標(biāo)題在近五年內(nèi)(2004-2008)的變化趨勢。

3研究結(jié)果與討論

標(biāo)題應(yīng)當(dāng)體現(xiàn)信息性和經(jīng)濟(jì)性原則。信息性是指標(biāo)題應(yīng)當(dāng)全面準(zhǔn)確反映論文的內(nèi)容。經(jīng)濟(jì)性是指標(biāo)題應(yīng)當(dāng)用最少的詞表達(dá)最豐富的意義。表1顯示了兩本期刊英語標(biāo)題的平均長度。明顯的差異在于國內(nèi)的CEQ論文標(biāo)題要比國外的QJE論文標(biāo)題用詞偏長。就其原因在于英語不是中國人的母語，并且中國學(xué)者在撰寫英語論文標(biāo)題時會受到中國文化的影響（Connor， 1996）。另外，無論CEQ論文標(biāo)題是出于投稿人的翻譯或重新用英語撰寫，都會受到原來漢語標(biāo)題的影響，我們的統(tǒng)計發(fā)現(xiàn)，漢語標(biāo)題會經(jīng)常出現(xiàn)“論”、“研究”以及“探討”之類的標(biāo)題標(biāo)記（尹世超，2001）。同時，國內(nèi)學(xué)者撰寫的英語論文標(biāo)題會將這類標(biāo)記詞翻譯出來形成“The study of …” 或“The analysis of …”之類表達(dá)形式。這無形中會增加英語標(biāo)題的長度而不會因此增加標(biāo)題的信息含量。

標(biāo)題的功能有四種（尹世超，2001）：稱名功能，概括功能，吸引功能和引導(dǎo)功能。如果綜合考慮標(biāo)題的兩個原則和四個功能，那么復(fù)合型標(biāo)題是最理想的標(biāo)題形式。表2的復(fù)合型標(biāo)題頻度百分比正好體現(xiàn)了這一選擇在英語環(huán)境下的要求。按照Swales和Feak（1994）的觀點此類標(biāo)題（英語）的構(gòu)成為：問題-解決（problem-solution），一般-詳細(xì)（general-specific），話題-方法（topic-method）和主要-次要（major-minor）。這一構(gòu)成就能夠是撰寫者不通過語言手段而在兩部分之間建立聯(lián)系，達(dá)到信息性、經(jīng)濟(jì)性和吸引功能的統(tǒng)一。由于標(biāo)題的基本功能是稱名功能所以名詞詞組型標(biāo)題在兩本期刊中都占有較多的頻度。有趣的發(fā)現(xiàn)是，美國的QJE期刊論文標(biāo)題出現(xiàn)了較多的句子型標(biāo)題，共15個占該期刊語料的6.33%，以及較多的動詞詞組型標(biāo)題，共8個占該期刊語料的3.38%。

兩本期刊使用最多的名詞詞組型標(biāo)題都是NP+PP結(jié)構(gòu)，即一個核心名詞后接一個介詞短語的結(jié)構(gòu)。但是，相比較而言，CEQ期刊論文NP標(biāo)題的結(jié)構(gòu)相對較復(fù)雜。這一點似乎驗證了Connor（1996）的觀點，寫作是一種深嵌于文化的行為。即國內(nèi)學(xué)者撰寫英語論文標(biāo)題時，會采用復(fù)雜的介詞短語限定討論話題的形式，而國外學(xué)者會直接采用其他策略比如說采用CP型標(biāo)題結(jié)構(gòu)。這同時似乎也表明非母語寫作者會在使用第二外語時無意識的會凸顯過濾某些文化因素，這些因素會表現(xiàn)在語言層面，比如說，復(fù)雜的介詞短語結(jié)構(gòu)標(biāo)題。

在標(biāo)題具有稱名這一點上，中美期刊論文撰寫者又一次達(dá)成一致，即標(biāo)題的前后兩部分都是名詞詞組結(jié)構(gòu)[NP:NP]。但是QJE期刊CP論文標(biāo)題并不僅僅是依賴這一結(jié)構(gòu)，作為美國學(xué)術(shù)共同體的研究者，他們會更多關(guān)注英語標(biāo)題的其他功能如吸引功能，所以該類標(biāo)題在QJE中呈現(xiàn)出較多的其他次級結(jié)構(gòu)，如Q:NP[問句：名詞詞組]型。本語料庫中，最強(qiáng)烈的對比在于，QJE中會出現(xiàn)PP:NP類型標(biāo)題和Q:Q類型標(biāo)題，而CEQ中卻無此類型標(biāo)題出現(xiàn)；另外，在CEQ中會出現(xiàn)PP:NP和Q:VP類型標(biāo)題，但是在QJE中，撰寫者不會才取此類型去撰寫標(biāo)題。此現(xiàn)象有待于進(jìn)一步的大規(guī)模的語料收集和分析。

從上圖可以看出，NP和CP標(biāo)題在五類標(biāo)題中在近五年內(nèi)呈增加趨勢。有趣的發(fā)現(xiàn)是，CP標(biāo)題在兩本期刊中在2007年增至最多，相反的NP標(biāo)題在兩本期刊中減至最少。相對于2007年來說，兩本期刊中的CP標(biāo)題在2008年有所減少，而NP標(biāo)題有所增加。最終的結(jié)果表明，經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)類期刊英語論文標(biāo)題NP和CP類型出現(xiàn)的頻度趨近于相同，但總體呈增加態(tài)勢。

4結(jié)論

本研究表明經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)類中美兩本期刊的英語論文標(biāo)題存在明顯差異。這些差異是由于文化社會因素造成。本研究的意義在于為經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)類同行撰寫英語論文標(biāo)題提供幫助。進(jìn)一步的研究可細(xì)致深入地探討經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)類英語論文標(biāo)題的用詞特點。

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[12]Pérez-Llantada, C.. 2004. An interview with John Swales [J]. IB?RICA, 8: 139-148.

[13]Soler, V.. 2007. Writing titles in science: An exploratory study [J]. English for Specific Purposes, 26(1): 90-102.

[14]Swales, J. M.. 1990. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings [M]. New York, Cambridge: CUP.

[15]Swales, J. M. 2004. Research Genres: Explorations and Applications [M]. New York: Cambridge: CUP.

[16]Swales, J.M. & Feak, C.B. 1994. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Commentary [M]. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.

[17]Thompson, G. 1996. Introducing Functional Grammar [M]. London: Arnold.

[18]Yitzhaki, M. 2002. Relation of Title Length of a Journal Article to the Length of the Article [J]. Scientometrics, 54 (3): 435-447.

[19]段萍，顧維萍.醫(yī)學(xué)論文標(biāo)題與摘要漢譯英常見錯誤分析[J]. 中國翻譯，2002.

[20]化柏林.圖書情報學(xué)核心期刊論文標(biāo)題計量分析研究[J].情報學(xué)報，2007，26(3).

[21]王成宇.英漢疑問型學(xué)術(shù)論文標(biāo)題對比研究[J].外語教學(xué)與研究，2003，02.

篇（3）

在課堂上，本人情緒飽滿，充滿激情，聲音洪亮清晰，授課時語音語調(diào)起伏變化，肢體語言豐富。不僅讓學(xué)生集中注意力，提高學(xué)習(xí)效率而且善于引導(dǎo)學(xué)生情緒，調(diào)動其積極性，使學(xué)生在課堂上更加投入。 本著外語學(xué)院“聽說領(lǐng)先教學(xué)法"，“任務(wù)驅(qū)動教學(xué)法”和“交際教學(xué)法”的原則，本人上課時候特別注意師生互動和聯(lián)系實際。經(jīng)常組織小組討論，鼓勵學(xué)生獨立發(fā)言，力求學(xué)生參與度達(dá)到100%。如在聽力教學(xué)中，每次課前布置教學(xué)任務(wù)，課上進(jìn)行檢測，技巧講解中及時穿插聽力訓(xùn)練，對于聽力過程中出現(xiàn)的生詞讓學(xué)生自己課前自查， 課上朗讀并解釋意思，老師給與必要指導(dǎo)，及時總結(jié)規(guī)律。在文學(xué)教學(xué)中，將電影片段，神話故事，圖片等與選段詞匯結(jié)合起來，讓學(xué)生既擴(kuò)大詞匯，同時又感受到學(xué)習(xí)的樂趣。同時在進(jìn)行選段分析時，盡量拓展學(xué)生的思維，將文章主題與相關(guān)社會現(xiàn)象和文化結(jié)合起來，組織學(xué)生圍繞社會問題進(jìn)行討論，并給與一定的指導(dǎo)，力求幫助學(xué)生樹立良好的社會價值觀。如學(xué)習(xí)羅素的《我為什么而活》， 給學(xué)生放映《活著》片段，讓學(xué)生結(jié)合社會現(xiàn)實探討人為什么而活，以及讀書到底有什么用。學(xué)習(xí)《傲慢與偏見》時，要求學(xué)生先了解作者的婚姻觀，并結(jié)合《蝸居》，引導(dǎo)學(xué)生樹立正確的婚姻觀。

課堂上本人是富有激情且嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)睦蠋煟n后是學(xué)生親切、知心的朋友。學(xué)生們都喜歡在課堂外與我聊天，交流學(xué)習(xí)和生活心得。本人也總是及時獲取學(xué)生信息，獲取教學(xué)反饋，并及時更新教學(xué)計劃。比如，06級畢業(yè)班同學(xué)在上了三周課后， 有部分學(xué)生要求將教學(xué)重心轉(zhuǎn)到專業(yè)八級的輔導(dǎo)上， 本人于是對所有三個班學(xué)生展開了問卷調(diào)查，結(jié)果顯示99%的學(xué)生希望老師能講解專八知識。雖然覺得學(xué)生有些短視，本人還是及時調(diào)整了教學(xué)計劃，花了大量時間搜集專八人文知識資料并自編了英、美國文學(xué)串講資料。在聽力測驗和專八知識自測中，發(fā)現(xiàn)有個別學(xué)生因成績不理想而情緒低落，還有的個別學(xué)生有偏激和消極的想法，本人及時開導(dǎo)和鼓勵他們振作起來。對個別學(xué)生進(jìn)行學(xué)習(xí)方法上的單獨輔導(dǎo)，或者給他們布置適當(dāng)?shù)念~外學(xué)習(xí)任務(wù)。

本人堅信：教師不能只是教書匠，更應(yīng)該是學(xué)生成長過程中的扶持者和引導(dǎo)者。無論是校外還是校內(nèi)，無論是課堂內(nèi)還是課堂外， 教師都要通過各種方式來幫助和激勵學(xué)生，促使學(xué)生養(yǎng)成主動式、探究式和合作式學(xué)習(xí)習(xí)慣，從而獲得學(xué)業(yè)成功、就業(yè)成功和未來的事業(yè)成功。

二、在搞好教育教學(xué)實踐的同時，教師必須非常重視專業(yè)理論的學(xué)習(xí)和教學(xué)經(jīng)驗的總結(jié)，力爭在科研上多出成果。

本人很榮幸獲得外語學(xué)院李道順院長的青睞， 被院長收為科研指導(dǎo)對象， 李院長成為本人的科研導(dǎo)師。本人虛心求教， 積極向上，追求進(jìn)步，經(jīng)常與李院長就科研工作進(jìn)行相關(guān)交流與學(xué)習(xí)，受益頗多。本人積極發(fā)揮外語學(xué)院科研骨干的帶頭作用，經(jīng)常與同事就論文撰寫和教材編寫進(jìn)行交流。作為外語學(xué)院精品課程研究小組成員，積極討論精品課程的建設(shè)問題，了解課程建設(shè)對科研的指導(dǎo)作用。

本人積極向本校科研十佳工作者學(xué)習(xí)，努力鉆研科研方法，力爭在科研上趕上并超越他們。 科研突飛猛進(jìn)。 本學(xué)期共發(fā)表了9篇論文，其中《成功素質(zhì)教育下綜合英語精品課程建設(shè)探究》等3篇文章發(fā)表在《山東文學(xué)》、《時代文學(xué)》和《大家》北大核心期刊上； 論文《改革專業(yè)英語考試模式推進(jìn)成功素質(zhì)教育》發(fā)表在國家一級教育類權(quán)威期刊《中國校外教育》上；其他文章大都為本科學(xué)報論文如《湖北大學(xué)成人教育學(xué)院學(xué)報》、《湖北廣播電視大學(xué)學(xué)報》 、《濰坊教育學(xué)院學(xué)報》、《赤峰學(xué)院學(xué)報》等；本人還了解了國際4大檢索論文的撰寫知識和投稿指南， 撰寫了2篇高水平的全英語論文， 并投稿相關(guān)國際會議， 成功通過審稿，將分別于2010年6月和8月見刊，并將被EI 和ISTP 雙檢索。同時參與了3部英語專業(yè)本科教材的編寫，分別是《大學(xué)英語寫作教程》，該書已經(jīng)付梓， 另2部《大學(xué)英語口語教程》 （第二冊和第四冊）正在編寫中。

篇（4）

中圖分類號：G424 文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識碼：A

1 商務(wù)英語概況

商務(wù)英語是以英語為載體商務(wù)知識為核心的一種專門用途英語（English for Specific Purposes 即 ESP）。本文擬對對外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)和廣大外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)商務(wù)英語專業(yè)人才培養(yǎng)模式差異性進(jìn)行比較，希望通過比較能對商務(wù)英語專業(yè)設(shè)置合理的培養(yǎng)方案提供一些參考

2 差異性比較

2.1 培養(yǎng)目標(biāo)差異性比較

（1） 培養(yǎng)目標(biāo)。

對外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)：本專業(yè)旨在培養(yǎng)具有扎實的英語知識和技能，掌握較寬廣的人文與社會科學(xué)以及國際商務(wù)基礎(chǔ)理論知識，具有較強(qiáng)的跨文化交流能力，適應(yīng)各類企事業(yè)單位從事國際商務(wù)活動需要的高素質(zhì)專門人才。

廣東外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)：培養(yǎng)具有扎實的英語語言基礎(chǔ)、嫻熟的英語交際能力、良好的文化素養(yǎng)、系統(tǒng)的商務(wù)知識、寬闊的國際視野、善于跨文化交際，適應(yīng)經(jīng)濟(jì)全球化競爭，能勝任國際商務(wù)管理、國際貿(mào)易、國際金融等部門工作的國際商務(wù)專業(yè)人才。

（2） 具體要求。

對外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)：①掌握扎實的英語知識與技能。②掌握國際商務(wù)基本理論，熟悉國際貿(mào)易相關(guān)專業(yè)知識和政策法規(guī)。③必須選修一門第二外語且達(dá)到學(xué)校要求的學(xué)習(xí)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。④掌握比較寬廣的中西方政治、經(jīng)濟(jì)、歷史、文化知識。⑤熟練掌握必要的計算機(jī)應(yīng)用技能。⑥掌握獲取專業(yè)學(xué)術(shù)信息的科學(xué)方法，具備獨立從事英語研究的基本能力。

廣東外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)：①具有扎實的英語語言基礎(chǔ)和熟練的聽、說、讀、寫、譯能力，通過英語專業(yè)八級考試。②熟悉英語國家文化，具備較強(qiáng)的跨文化商務(wù)交際能力。③系統(tǒng)掌握國際商務(wù)的基本知識和技能。④具有第二外國語的初步應(yīng)用能力。⑤掌握文獻(xiàn)檢索、資料查詢的基本方法，具有初步科學(xué)研究能力，用英語撰寫與國際商務(wù)相關(guān)的畢業(yè)論文。

可以看出，兩所學(xué)校在培養(yǎng)目標(biāo)和具體要求上都大同小異，都強(qiáng)調(diào)了對學(xué)生語言技能，商務(wù)知識，跨文化交際能力和二外水平的培養(yǎng)。

2.2 課程設(shè)置比較

英語語言類課程：北京對外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)：56%， 廣東外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)63%。

英語文化類課程：北京對外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)：17%， 廣東外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)8%。

商務(wù)類課程：北京對外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)：27%， 廣東外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)29%。

（1） 英語語言類課程。

北京對外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)：綜合英語、 英語聽說、 英語語音、 閱讀指導(dǎo)、 英語寫作、 第二外語、語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論（英）、 傳意學(xué)導(dǎo)（英）、 英語文體學(xué)、英語公眾演講、 交替口譯（一）（英）、英語論文寫作、高級商務(wù)英語聽說、商務(wù)英語寫作。

廣東外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)：綜合英語、商務(wù)英語、英語寫作、商務(wù)英語 寫作、高級英語閱讀與寫作、高級英語閱讀與寫作、英語聽力、英語口語、商務(wù)英語聽說、英漢口譯、英漢筆譯。

（2） 英語文化類課程。

北京對外經(jīng)濟(jì)貿(mào)易大學(xué)：英美文學(xué)導(dǎo)論（英）、歐洲文化（英）、 美國文化（英）、歐美戲劇鑒賞（英）、散文（下轉(zhuǎn)第165頁）（上接第147頁）分析、跨文化交際導(dǎo)論（英）、個人商務(wù)交際技能（英） 、 跨文化商務(wù)交流（英）。

廣東外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)：英語國家社會與文化、英美文學(xué)和跨文化商務(wù)交際。

（3）商務(wù)類課程（略）。

可以看出，兩所學(xué)校在英語語言類和文化類課程比例上差異性較大，筆者認(rèn)為這種差異受地域性特征影響。北京作為政治文化中心，相應(yīng)加重了英語文化課程培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的跨文化交際能力。而廣東外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)坐落于國際貿(mào)易中心廣東省，在商務(wù)英語專業(yè)下細(xì)分為四個方向，以服務(wù)于國際貿(mào)易不同需求。

2.3 師資結(jié)構(gòu)比較

2008年，對外經(jīng)貿(mào)英語學(xué)院成功申報了商務(wù)英語國家級教學(xué)團(tuán)隊，教學(xué)主要圍繞語言技能、商務(wù)知識、跨文化交流、人文素養(yǎng)四大模塊展開。

而廣東外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)商務(wù)英語學(xué)院設(shè)有五個研究中心，分別為商務(wù)翻譯研究中心，法律語言學(xué)研究中心，商務(wù)英語研究中心，國際商務(wù)研究中心以及跨文化商務(wù)研究中心，約有1/3的既掌握語言又掌握商科知識的復(fù)合型教師。

3 加強(qiáng)高校商務(wù)英語專業(yè)建設(shè)的一些思考

面對這種新的復(fù)合型人才需求形式，高校商務(wù)英語專業(yè)要找到合適的專業(yè)定位，逐步改善目前的專業(yè)建設(shè)情況。

3.1 培養(yǎng)模式市場化

商務(wù)英語專業(yè)培養(yǎng)模式應(yīng)以市場為導(dǎo)向，結(jié)合地方經(jīng)濟(jì)文化的特性。通過本文對對外經(jīng)貿(mào)和廣東外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)比較也可以看出兩所高校在培養(yǎng)模式上地域性差異特征。

3.2 人才國際化

從對外經(jīng)貿(mào)和廣東外語外貿(mào)大學(xué)培養(yǎng)目標(biāo)可以看出，商務(wù)英語專業(yè)作為服務(wù)于全球化和國際化的應(yīng)用型學(xué)科，更應(yīng)以培養(yǎng)國際化人才為目標(biāo)，加強(qiáng)學(xué)生外語水平，計算機(jī)應(yīng)用能力和專業(yè)知識等硬件方面的培養(yǎng)，也應(yīng)注重學(xué)生國際視野，人文素養(yǎng)，人際交往等方面的教育。

3.3 課程系統(tǒng)化

專業(yè)課程體系是教學(xué)計劃的主要內(nèi)容，也是應(yīng)用型人才培養(yǎng)的關(guān)鍵。商務(wù)英語專業(yè)課程設(shè)置上要合理處理語言類課程和商務(wù)類課程關(guān)系，學(xué)生知識結(jié)構(gòu)和能力培養(yǎng)的關(guān)系。筆者認(rèn)為商務(wù)英語專業(yè)課程設(shè)置應(yīng)包括語技能，商務(wù)知識，跨文化交流，人文素養(yǎng)，計算機(jī)及實習(xí)課程等方面內(nèi)容。

3.4 教學(xué)案例化

作為哈佛商學(xué)院MBA教學(xué)的代名詞，案例教學(xué)化在我國也得到不斷應(yīng)用和推廣。案例教學(xué)法對加強(qiáng)商務(wù)英語教學(xué)的實用性和實踐性，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的交際能力和實際解決問題的能力都具有重大的指導(dǎo)意義。

3.5 教師復(fù)合化

篇（5）

四六級考試在之前大學(xué)生英語水平較低的情況下，確實促進(jìn)了大學(xué)英語教學(xué)的發(fā)展，推動了大學(xué)生英語水平的普遍提高。但是隨著現(xiàn)在中小學(xué)階段英語教學(xué)水平的不斷提升與投入的不斷加大，四六級考試嚴(yán)重地阻礙了大學(xué)英語向?qū)W生提出的更高的英語能力要求，阻礙了通用英語向?qū)W術(shù)英語（EAP）或?qū)ｉT用途英語（ESP）轉(zhuǎn)移的進(jìn)程。雖然其推動了大學(xué)基礎(chǔ)英語教學(xué)的發(fā)展，并使之長盛不衰，但同時阻礙了大學(xué)朝專業(yè)英語教學(xué)轉(zhuǎn)移和發(fā)展的進(jìn)程。

大學(xué)英語四六級考試順應(yīng)潮流，修訂目標(biāo)定位，其意義是極其深遠(yuǎn)的。這一舉措表明，一個硬性的、統(tǒng)一的教學(xué)要求時代的結(jié)束，以及一個強(qiáng)調(diào)個性化和多元化的后大學(xué)英語教學(xué)時代的到來（蔡基剛，2007）。

2.大學(xué)英語四、六級及大學(xué)英語教學(xué)面臨的挑戰(zhàn)

一個如此大規(guī)模的考試，在長達(dá)26年的時間內(nèi)穩(wěn)定發(fā)展，這一基本事實證明大學(xué)英語四六級考試適應(yīng)了社會的需要，得到了社會的普遍認(rèn)同，產(chǎn)生了良好的社會效益，也為我國大學(xué)英語教學(xué)質(zhì)量的提高作出了巨大的貢獻(xiàn)。

然而，在當(dāng)今大學(xué)生英語水平不斷提高，社會和學(xué)科不斷發(fā)展變化的情況下，必須對其重新定位。根據(jù)2003年教育部基礎(chǔ)教育司頒布的普通高中英語課程標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，其中規(guī)定了今后高中畢業(yè)生必須達(dá)到的七級標(biāo)準(zhǔn)和進(jìn)一步提高英語綜合語言運(yùn)用能力的八級與九級標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，“八級”詞匯量要求在3300字左右，優(yōu)秀高中畢業(yè)生要達(dá)到九級水平，詞匯量為4500；2004年教育部高教司制定了大學(xué)英語教學(xué)基本要求（試行），核心就是突出聽說能力的培養(yǎng)和推動基于多媒體的大學(xué)英語教學(xué)模式，大學(xué)四級考試是檢測學(xué)生達(dá)到大學(xué)英語課程“一般要求”的考試，詞匯量要求在4500字左右，六級考試是大學(xué)英語“較高要求”的測試。高中課程和大學(xué)英語課程重復(fù)率高，很多詞匯、語法都是高中學(xué)過的東西，大學(xué)英語受到中學(xué)英語和英語專業(yè)的雙面夾擊，必須尋求新的出路。因此，服務(wù)于大學(xué)英語教學(xué)的四六級考試也應(yīng)隨之改革。

2.1大學(xué)英語教學(xué)改革新方向

英語水平是構(gòu)成大學(xué)生綜合素質(zhì)的重要方面之一。大學(xué)英語是高等學(xué)校非英語專業(yè)大學(xué)生必修的一門基礎(chǔ)課程，是基礎(chǔ)教學(xué)課程體系中重要的核心課程。大學(xué)英語課程的教學(xué)質(zhì)量直接關(guān)系到高等學(xué)校學(xué)生的總體培養(yǎng)質(zhì)量，傳統(tǒng)意義上的大學(xué)英語指的就是基礎(chǔ)英語教學(xué)。

目前許多名校，如清華北大已經(jīng)取消了大學(xué)英語課程的開設(shè)。學(xué)生認(rèn)為英語基礎(chǔ)已經(jīng)在中學(xué)階段打好，開設(shè)基礎(chǔ)英語課程等于重學(xué)高中階段學(xué)習(xí)過的知識。因此，把目標(biāo)轉(zhuǎn)為注重學(xué)生學(xué)術(shù)英語能力培養(yǎng)，為專業(yè)化國際交流提供支撐。這一改革適應(yīng)了專業(yè)院系和學(xué)生的需求，得到了學(xué)校的支持。香港高校的大學(xué)英語教學(xué)目標(biāo)非常明確，他們的目的是幫助學(xué)生獲得學(xué)術(shù)英語能力，以適應(yīng)專業(yè)學(xué)習(xí)和未來工作的需要。由于目前香港高校新生的英語水平離這樣的課程目標(biāo)還有較大距離，他們就需要學(xué)習(xí)在中學(xué)里沒有學(xué)過的EAP課程。內(nèi)地高校大學(xué)英語教學(xué)目標(biāo)含糊，學(xué)生和學(xué)校只能把四六級考試作為學(xué)習(xí)的終極目標(biāo)。由于這個目標(biāo)在新生英語水平不斷提高的背景下，可以在越來越短的時間甚至零時間里實現(xiàn)，這樣學(xué)分的壓縮和課程的萎縮自然不可避免。因此，大學(xué)英語應(yīng)該借鑒香港及國外的先進(jìn)經(jīng)驗，才能適應(yīng)時代的發(fā)展。

我國幅員廣闊，各地區(qū)、各大學(xué)的教師整體水平和生源狀況存在差別，國家和地方對不同類型高校的投入不一樣，學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)條件也不盡相同。對于一些入學(xué)英語基礎(chǔ)比較差、基本的聽說讀寫能力都不具備的學(xué)生，大學(xué)英語教學(xué)還是十分必要的。這就需要各個高校在學(xué)生大一期間就要確定學(xué)生的水平，判斷學(xué)生是否需要修完四個學(xué)期的大學(xué)英語必修課程。對于那些基礎(chǔ)已經(jīng)達(dá)到一般要求的學(xué)生，即通過四級的學(xué)生，可以根據(jù)自身水平，給學(xué)生開設(shè)相關(guān)的專業(yè)英語或?qū)嵱糜⒄Z課程。

大學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)英語的目的應(yīng)該是了解專業(yè)前沿的國際發(fā)展，增強(qiáng)在科學(xué)技術(shù)上的學(xué)術(shù)競爭力。真正符合大學(xué)英語教學(xué)改革要“切實提高大學(xué)生的專業(yè)英語水平和直接使用英語從事科研的能力”。了解國際前沿的前提應(yīng)該是先打好基礎(chǔ)，這就要靠大學(xué)英語即通用英語打基礎(chǔ)。

2.2四、六級考試面臨的問題

鑒于四、六級考試在社會上的認(rèn)可度，英語成績較差的大學(xué)生把大部分時間都花在英語的學(xué)習(xí)上，通過大學(xué)英語四級考試必須奮斗整個四年；成績好的學(xué)生為準(zhǔn)備其他各類英語考試，也奮斗了整個四年。這種學(xué)習(xí)熱情的錯位，極大地影響了他們的專業(yè)學(xué)習(xí)，違背了大學(xué)教學(xué)的真正目的。

此外，作為一項重要的教學(xué)評估手段，其對教學(xué)等方面產(chǎn)生的巨大影響已為大家所公認(rèn)。很多同學(xué)通過四、六級考試后就沾沾自喜，從此放棄了英語學(xué)習(xí)。根據(jù)對武漢當(dāng)?shù)卮髮W(xué)一些學(xué)生的調(diào)查，學(xué)生反映：“通過了四級、六級考試，自己覺得是英語高手。但碰到英文文章，心中頓時務(wù)實起來，通篇都是生詞，一小時只能看幾行。寫的英語論文，外國人看不懂。學(xué)了一些日常口語，但跟老外交流膽怯。學(xué)校中實際生活如上機(jī)房、做實驗、選課、搞課題研究都不會說。”筆者親歷的湖北省眾多高校的一線老師們的意見也不比學(xué)生少：學(xué)生四、六級考試過關(guān)之后，英文文獻(xiàn)讀不了，英文論文寫得一塌糊涂，未能實現(xiàn)與國際社會接軌的大學(xué)人才培養(yǎng)目標(biāo)。

四、六級考試的重要性，引發(fā)了一系列問題，大學(xué)英語教學(xué)成為應(yīng)試教育，社會上的不法分子為了獲利，制造作弊器，銷售四、六級答案，很多高校把四、六級通過率當(dāng)做衡量教學(xué)的唯一標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。四、六級在不斷改革，2005年從以前的100分滿分值改為710分滿分，大大增加了聽力的分值比例，把聽說交際能力放在了重要位置。2012年12月新推出的多題多卷，有效防止了作弊現(xiàn)象，其還有待進(jìn)一步改革，服務(wù)于大學(xué)英語教學(xué)，保障其效度跟信度。

四、六級考試應(yīng)該反自身的優(yōu)缺點，不斷進(jìn)行改革，適應(yīng)時代的需求，為更好地服務(wù)大學(xué)英語教學(xué)提供支持。討論大學(xué)英語四、六級考試通用英語定位還是學(xué)術(shù)英語定位，不論是對于挽救考試本身，還是對于促進(jìn)我國大學(xué)英語健康發(fā)展，都有很深刻的理論意義和現(xiàn)實意義。

3.改革措施與建議

3.1借鑒國外先進(jìn)經(jīng)驗

大學(xué)英語四、六級考試應(yīng)當(dāng)與國際先進(jìn)做法接軌，不斷改進(jìn)技術(shù)手段，引入計算機(jī)網(wǎng)絡(luò)化的考試技術(shù)，使考試更具科學(xué)性和準(zhǔn)確性。網(wǎng)考有很多優(yōu)點：（1）可以借助多媒體模擬更真實的交際場景，使測試由靜態(tài)變?yōu)閯討B(tài)，使英語的使用更加接近生活。（2）可以節(jié)省資源，降低印卷、運(yùn)輸、分發(fā)、保管等方面的工作強(qiáng)度。（3）網(wǎng)考具有測驗周期短的特點，能夠增加每年考試的次數(shù)，同時實現(xiàn)一人一卷模式，有效防止考前泄題或考試過程中的作弊行為，提高考試的安全性。

美國教育服務(wù)中心（ETS）推行的托福考試是針對留學(xué)生的學(xué)術(shù)英語水平考試，是一場職場英語的水平考試。雅思考試由英國文化協(xié)會、劍橋大學(xué)考試局及澳大利亞國際教育發(fā)展署共同主辦。雅思分學(xué)術(shù)類和普通類兩種題型，學(xué)術(shù)類主要適合留學(xué)，普通類主要適合移民。鑒于此，國內(nèi)的CET要想長遠(yuǎn)地立足于國際社會，也要開發(fā)自己的獨特測試種類。比如當(dāng)下流行的檢測學(xué)生基礎(chǔ)英語水平的大學(xué)公共英語考試，也要服務(wù)于專門英語（EPS）教學(xué)，為EPS開辟新的測試。

3.2課程設(shè)置

大學(xué)英語教學(xué)應(yīng)該改變傳統(tǒng)的所有本科生都進(jìn)行四個學(xué)期的大學(xué)英語必修課的局面，壓縮大學(xué)英語的學(xué)分，將其用來開設(shè)專門用途英語和學(xué)術(shù)英語，由學(xué)生根據(jù)自己的需要和專業(yè)需求選擇，取消綜合英語（或叫大學(xué)英語）這個由精讀演變而來的傳統(tǒng)課程，代之以1～2個學(xué)分的、比較專項的閱讀、聽力、口語、寫作、語法等小課程。

3.3教師層面

大學(xué)英語教師應(yīng)該接受培訓(xùn)，為開設(shè)各個專業(yè)的學(xué)科英語做準(zhǔn)備。同時控制從英語專業(yè)的碩士生或博士生中招聘單純?yōu)樯洗髮W(xué)基礎(chǔ)英語課的教師。教學(xué)管理者和課程規(guī)劃者只有充分了解本校學(xué)習(xí)者的外語學(xué)習(xí)需求，才能對課程進(jìn)行合理設(shè)置，制訂出適合本校學(xué)生的英語教學(xué)改革方案和教學(xué)模式，因需施教，收效才更直接可觀，才更有利于提高英語教學(xué)水平。

將英語教學(xué)的重心逐漸從大學(xué)下移至中小學(xué)，為大學(xué)生學(xué)英語減負(fù)，使之有更多時間學(xué)好專業(yè)，努力創(chuàng)新。分管大學(xué)和中小學(xué)外語教學(xué)的教育部門有必要相互協(xié)調(diào)配合，制訂規(guī)劃，加速這一進(jìn)程。中小學(xué)是學(xué)好英語最重要的階段，是英語教學(xué)杠桿的支點，最需要優(yōu)秀的英語教師，最需要教育部門的重視，最需要國家投入，投入的效益也最高。

3.4政府層面

加大中小學(xué)英語教師的培訓(xùn)力度。國家增加投入，派遣英語教師出國學(xué)習(xí)，或聘請外語教學(xué)專家培訓(xùn)英語教師，提高外語教學(xué)理論水平和英語運(yùn)用能力，讓教師明白外語是怎樣學(xué)會的，知道怎樣教，自覺抵制應(yīng)試教育。多邀請英語國家的大中小學(xué)生來華與我國學(xué)生交流互動，創(chuàng)造英語學(xué)習(xí)環(huán)境，讓我國學(xué)生體驗英語的真實使用。

篇（6）

隨著Internet技術(shù)的迅猛發(fā)展，經(jīng)濟(jì)全球化和教育國際化進(jìn)程不斷加快，中國高等教育面臨著新的機(jī)遇和挑戰(zhàn)。中國加入WTO及北京2008奧運(yùn)會的舉行，促進(jìn)了中外交流活動日益頻繁。如何培養(yǎng)新時期需要的復(fù)合型(專業(yè)+外語、知識+技能)人才，成為高等教育的首要任務(wù)。旅游高等教育以培養(yǎng)高級旅游涉外管理人才為主要目的，這些人才諸如導(dǎo)游、接待服務(wù)人員不僅要具備扎實的專業(yè)基礎(chǔ)知識，又要了解國內(nèi)外旅游業(yè)發(fā)展現(xiàn)狀，而且還要能夠用英語思維直接與外國游客進(jìn)行交流并提供優(yōu)質(zhì)服務(wù)，樹立良好的形象。這給旅游高等教育人才培養(yǎng)的內(nèi)涵提出了更高的要求。而雙語教學(xué)集專業(yè)學(xué)習(xí)、英語學(xué)習(xí)為一體，在此方面發(fā)揮著巨大的作用。如何在旅游高等教育中實施雙語教學(xué)成為當(dāng)前眾多旅游教育者關(guān)注的熱點問題之一。本文就旅游高等教育實施雙語教學(xué)中的教材選擇、師資配備、學(xué)生需求、教學(xué)方法與教學(xué)模式等方面進(jìn)行探討，以期為旅游高等教育實施雙語教學(xué)的進(jìn)一步開展指明方向。

一、雙語教學(xué)及其含義

雙語教學(xué)(BilingualTeaching)，根據(jù)英國《朗文應(yīng)用語言學(xué)詞典》的定義:The use of a second or foreign language in school for the teaching of content subjects，意思是在學(xué)校里使用第二語言或者外語進(jìn)行學(xué)科的教學(xué)。卡明斯(Cummins)對其進(jìn)一步解釋:“在學(xué)生教育生涯的某一階段使用兩種(或者更多)教學(xué)媒介語。這兩種語言被用來教授科目內(nèi)容而不單純是語言課程本身”[1]。隨著文化交流的擴(kuò)展與深入，英語已成為當(dāng)今世界通用語言，當(dāng)前我國的雙語教學(xué)主要是指用英語作為專業(yè)教學(xué)的媒介。

雙語教學(xué)是將外語直接應(yīng)用于語言學(xué)科以外的其他學(xué)科的教學(xué)，通過用外語學(xué)習(xí)其他學(xué)科知識達(dá)到掌握外語的目的，使外語學(xué)習(xí)與專業(yè)學(xué)科知識的獲取同步。它不同于英語專業(yè)教學(xué)，英語專業(yè)教學(xué)側(cè)重對英語語言本身的學(xué)習(xí)，包括詞匯、語法、修辭等，強(qiáng)調(diào)對語言本身的學(xué)習(xí)，很少涉及其他非語言學(xué)科的專業(yè)課知識，主要培養(yǎng)英語語言理論和應(yīng)用人才。專業(yè)課雙語教學(xué)只把英語作為教學(xué)媒介，側(cè)重對專業(yè)知識的系統(tǒng)講解，不強(qiáng)調(diào)學(xué)習(xí)英語本身，以培養(yǎng)非英語學(xué)科的人才為主。因此，雙語教學(xué)課堂絕非英語教學(xué)課堂。

二、旅游高等教育實施雙語教學(xué)的必要性

1.開展雙語教學(xué)是旅游院校教學(xué)改革的需要

國家教育部在2001年出臺了第四號文件《關(guān)于加強(qiáng)高等學(xué)校本科教學(xué)工作提高教學(xué)質(zhì)量的若干意見》，畢業(yè)論文 明確要求各高等院校在3年內(nèi)要開設(shè)5%-10%的“雙語”教學(xué)課程，特別是一些國際通用性、可比性強(qiáng)的專業(yè)和學(xué)科應(yīng)盡快與國際接軌。時至今日，各高等院校相繼進(jìn)行了雙語教學(xué)的探索、研究和實踐。由于旅游活動具有很強(qiáng)的文化性、實踐性和涉外性，旅游高等教育更要首當(dāng)其沖。面對新時期的機(jī)遇和挑戰(zhàn)，新型的旅游人才不僅要精通旅游專業(yè)知識和漢語文化，還要通曉外語、熟悉外國文化、適應(yīng)國際競爭的需要。雙語教學(xué)把培養(yǎng)學(xué)生的語言能力和專業(yè)技能合二為一，是培養(yǎng)旅游高級復(fù)合型人才的有效方法，也是我國高等教育實現(xiàn)從“量的擴(kuò)張”到“質(zhì)的提升”的有效途徑。隨著高校教學(xué)改革的推進(jìn)，有些高校將取消專業(yè)英語課程，而增開雙語教學(xué)科目。雙語教學(xué)已成為衡量本科教育水平，突出高校辦學(xué)特色，進(jìn)行教學(xué)改革的重要舉措。因此，雙語教學(xué)是目前教育教學(xué)改革研究的需要。

2.實施雙語教學(xué)是旅游學(xué)科和旅游教育發(fā)展的需要

旅游學(xué)是一門新興的綜合性學(xué)科，最先出現(xiàn)于西方發(fā)達(dá)的歐美國家，這些國家無論是旅游學(xué)科體系的建設(shè)，還是旅游教育都相對成熟，研究成果碩果累累;而我國旅游學(xué)的發(fā)展始于20世紀(jì)80年代，與之相比還比較落后。因此，需要借鑒國外經(jīng)驗。新型的旅游人才不僅要具有競爭能力、創(chuàng)新能力、交際能力，而且還要具備不斷獲取信息和處理信息的自學(xué)能力。旅游高等教育人才不僅要讓學(xué)生及時了解國內(nèi)旅游最新動態(tài)、發(fā)展趨勢，同時也要及時了解國外相關(guān)狀況，以更好的適應(yīng)國際社會競爭的需要。雙語教學(xué)為學(xué)生構(gòu)筑了一個國際化的平臺，使學(xué)生更多地了解客源地文化背景、價值觀念、思維模式，學(xué)生以國際化的視野來思考問題，憑借語言優(yōu)勢，能更直接、更迅速地把握學(xué)科、行業(yè)最新的發(fā)展態(tài)勢，開拓視野、拓寬旅游知識，發(fā)展專業(yè)技能，借鑒國外旅游業(yè)發(fā)展的成功經(jīng)驗，更好地認(rèn)識、解決本國旅游發(fā)展所出現(xiàn)的問題。因此，雙語教學(xué)是溝通旅游專業(yè)人才所需理論、語言和技能的一座橋梁，是完善旅游學(xué)科的發(fā)展和旅游教育人才培養(yǎng)的有效途徑。

3.實施雙語教學(xué)是提高學(xué)生技能和提升就業(yè)率的需要

傳統(tǒng)的旅游教育模式將專業(yè)教育和語言教育相分離，使旅游高等教育在相當(dāng)程度上無法滿足行業(yè)發(fā)展對雙語人才的需求。旅游人才，尤其是占到35%的旅游各專業(yè)本科層次的畢業(yè)生，因為語言能力和跨文化交流能力的約束，在一定程度上出現(xiàn)了職業(yè)生涯的落差，導(dǎo)致旅游人才的流失[3]，從而造成旅游本科生就業(yè)率較低，生源不足等一系列問題。雙語教學(xué)為學(xué)生提供了良好的外語交際環(huán)境，在某種程度上勢必增加學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)外語的壓力和動力，有效提高學(xué)生的英語水平，在求職就業(yè)方面占有競爭優(yōu)勢。實踐證明，雙語教學(xué)不僅能幫助學(xué)生鞏固已學(xué)的英語知識，增加專業(yè)詞匯量，還能滿足其強(qiáng)烈的求知欲望，激發(fā)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)專業(yè)知識的積極性，使學(xué)生能積極借助外文書刊和網(wǎng)絡(luò)及時了解旅游業(yè)的最新學(xué)術(shù)動態(tài)，提高學(xué)生的專業(yè)技能。

4.實施雙語教學(xué)是提高教師隊伍素質(zhì)的需要

新時期的要求不僅對高等教育、學(xué)生提出了更高的要求，同時也對旅游專業(yè)的師資隊伍提出了更高的要求。隨著我國教育國際交流的日趨頻繁，國內(nèi)外大學(xué)之間的學(xué)術(shù)交流及其他領(lǐng)域的合作不斷加深與擴(kuò)展，各國互派教師訪學(xué)，要求教師不僅懂外語，還能用外語進(jìn)行學(xué)術(shù)交流。我國目前高校的旅游專業(yè)的青年教師大多具有碩士及以上學(xué)位，具有六級英語水平，如果在高校不開展雙語教學(xué)，英語得不到再學(xué)習(xí)，就會導(dǎo)致英語水平逐步退化，客觀上造成了一種人力資源的浪費。相反，通過雙語教學(xué)，教師通過備課查閱外文文獻(xiàn)資料，用雙語授課及課外輔導(dǎo)，教學(xué)相長，不斷積累英語知識和專業(yè)知識，使教師綜合素質(zhì)顯著提高，適應(yīng)教育國際化的要求。

三、旅游高等教育實施雙語教學(xué)應(yīng)注意的問題

1.選擇適宜的雙語教學(xué)學(xué)科

學(xué)科是雙語教學(xué)實施的關(guān)鍵，它決定了雙語教學(xué)的內(nèi)容、方法及目標(biāo)。根據(jù)旅游高等教育的特點及雙語人才培養(yǎng)的目標(biāo)，應(yīng)選擇實用性強(qiáng)、文化性強(qiáng)及基礎(chǔ)性強(qiáng)的課程。醫(yī)學(xué)論文 實用性即具備鮮明的實用特色，與旅游的實際工作緊密結(jié)合的課程，如《模擬導(dǎo)游》、《飯店管理》等。實施雙語教學(xué)，既可將語言教學(xué)融入專業(yè)教學(xué)，又便于實踐特色導(dǎo)入教學(xué)，有助于提高旅游高等教育專業(yè)人才培養(yǎng)的質(zhì)量，充分實現(xiàn)雙語教學(xué)的價值。文化特色既是課程注重對中國文化的對外傳播，又注重對外國文化及其思維模式的把握，如《中國旅游文化》、《客源國概況》，這些課程導(dǎo)入雙語教學(xué)，有利于培養(yǎng)學(xué)生運(yùn)用兩種語言思維的能力，更好地完成對外交流。為更好地達(dá)到雙語教學(xué)的效果，還應(yīng)開展一些基礎(chǔ)課程，如《旅游學(xué)概論》、《旅游市場營銷》等。雙語教學(xué)積累一定的專業(yè)詞匯，能夠奠定理論和語言基礎(chǔ)。

需要指出的是，雙語教學(xué)科目并非越多越好，學(xué)科的選擇應(yīng)綜合考慮教學(xué)大綱、師資水平、學(xué)生水平等因素，避免盲目上馬，一哄而上。

2.確立適當(dāng)?shù)碾p語教學(xué)模式

雙語教學(xué)有3種模式:沉浸型雙語教學(xué)(學(xué)校使用一種不是學(xué)生在家使用的語言進(jìn)行教學(xué))、保持型雙語教學(xué)(在學(xué)生剛進(jìn)入學(xué)校時使用本族語，然后逐漸使用第二種語言進(jìn)行教學(xué)，其他學(xué)科仍使用母語教學(xué))、過渡型雙語教學(xué)(學(xué)生進(jìn)入學(xué)校以后部分或全部使用母語，然后逐步轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)橹皇褂玫诙Z言進(jìn)行教學(xué))。根據(jù)中國地質(zhì)大學(xué)管理學(xué)院旅游系教學(xué)培養(yǎng)模式(“3+1”模式:學(xué)生在3年內(nèi)修完大學(xué)本科的全部課程，最后一年到相關(guān)旅游企業(yè)進(jìn)行實習(xí))和學(xué)生的綜合英語水平，我們采取了保持型雙語教學(xué)模式和實踐模式相結(jié)合，即:在專業(yè)培養(yǎng)計劃中選定幾門學(xué)科進(jìn)行雙語教學(xué)，同時結(jié)合畢業(yè)實習(xí)的實踐，充分利用旅游企業(yè)、社會培訓(xùn)機(jī)構(gòu)等大旅游教育環(huán)境，拓寬學(xué)生的語言攝入、演練環(huán)境，進(jìn)而達(dá)到雙語教學(xué)的目標(biāo)。

3.采用靈活的雙語教學(xué)方法

雙語教學(xué)課堂不是老師按照中文講義的逐字翻譯，它的目標(biāo)是提高學(xué)生用英語進(jìn)行思維和表達(dá)的能力，必須強(qiáng)調(diào)課堂的互動性和學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)的積極性。

因此，雙語教學(xué)應(yīng)確立以學(xué)生為中心的教學(xué)理念。老師應(yīng)根據(jù)教學(xué)內(nèi)容、學(xué)生水平適時采取多種教學(xué)方法。在雙語教學(xué)實踐中，筆者采用了如下的教學(xué)手段:在雙語教學(xué)的初級階段，學(xué)生的詞匯量不大，英語水平不高，可以采用英語板書、漢語為主講解的教學(xué)方式，提問法(Question)、練習(xí)法(Exercise)、多媒體(Multimedia)教學(xué)等是較好的教學(xué)方法;隨著雙語教學(xué)的延伸，學(xué)生英語水平不斷提高，此時可采用以英語為主、英語思維的教學(xué)方式，討論法(Discuss)、案例分析法(Case Analysis)、角色扮演法(Role-play)教學(xué)效果明顯。

四、旅游高等教育導(dǎo)入雙語教學(xué)的對策

雙語教學(xué)對實現(xiàn)旅游高等教育的培養(yǎng)目標(biāo)有著深遠(yuǎn)的意義，是目前解決“雙語、雙文、雙能”的旅游復(fù)合型人才的有效途徑之一，我國很多高校的旅游專業(yè)已開始了雙語教學(xué)的初步研究和探索，但距教育部的目標(biāo)，還有一定距離。究其原因，雙語教學(xué)的開展還面臨著諸多實際困難。

1.提高師資水平是實施雙語教學(xué)的關(guān)鍵

雙語教師必須具備扎實的雙語知識(漢語和英語)，具備一定的雙語教學(xué)理論知識和精深的學(xué)科專業(yè)知識。而目前我國旅游專業(yè)的雙語教學(xué)面臨師資嚴(yán)重不足，知識結(jié)構(gòu)單一且整體水平不高。師資水平影響到整個雙語教學(xué)水平和質(zhì)量的高低。提高雙語教學(xué)師資水平的途徑有:

(1)加大雙語教師的培養(yǎng)和培訓(xùn)力度。依托高校培養(yǎng)，開設(shè)培養(yǎng)雙語師資的專業(yè)，為雙語教學(xué)源源不斷地輸送雙語人才，這是長遠(yuǎn)的解決辦法。培訓(xùn)是短期解決師資的有效途徑，雙語教師的培訓(xùn)應(yīng)注重整合高校資源，提倡院系之間的橫向聯(lián)合，可以從兩個方面開展，一是對有良好專業(yè)基礎(chǔ)的教師展開語言強(qiáng)化培訓(xùn)，二是對具有一定語言基礎(chǔ)的教師開展旅游學(xué)科知識培訓(xùn)，從而建立一支跨學(xué)科、多層次的雙語教學(xué)師資隊伍。此外，也可選派中青年教師出國深造、參加學(xué)術(shù)交流，拓寬教師培訓(xùn)途徑。

(2)引進(jìn)旅游專業(yè)的外籍教師。聘請旅游專業(yè)學(xué)科具有一定漢語知識的外教。聘請外籍教師不僅能解決純正的英語發(fā)音和獨特的英語思維問題，同時也能把國外先進(jìn)的旅游管理觀念和知識帶進(jìn)課堂，提高學(xué)生的專業(yè)知識水平。

(3)校企聯(lián)合，聘請兼職教師。目前，在我國旅游業(yè)及飯店管理業(yè)中，不乏一些高級管理人才，他們具備良好的英語技能和相當(dāng)?shù)墓ぷ鹘?jīng)驗，在雙語教學(xué)中具有獨特的優(yōu)勢。聘用兼職教師，實行專、兼職結(jié)合，校企聯(lián)合也是解決我國旅游高等教育雙語教學(xué)師資的有效方法。

2.激發(fā)學(xué)生學(xué)習(xí)興趣是實施雙語教學(xué)的基礎(chǔ)

激發(fā)學(xué)生的學(xué)習(xí)興趣，一方面需要老師飽含感情地進(jìn)行教學(xué)，運(yùn)用多種教學(xué)方法，開展教學(xué)內(nèi)容豐富、交際形式多樣、師生關(guān)系融洽的雙語活動;另一方面，老師應(yīng)充分利用雙語教學(xué)會給學(xué)生提供更為強(qiáng)烈的學(xué)習(xí)目的和學(xué)習(xí)動機(jī)的優(yōu)勢，英語論文 發(fā)揮學(xué)生主觀能動性，通過學(xué)生自己探索、團(tuán)隊合作、自主學(xué)習(xí)，培養(yǎng)學(xué)生興趣，達(dá)到教學(xué)效果。考慮到學(xué)生英語水平的個體差異，給予充分的調(diào)查和考核，開展雙語課的必修課與選修課并舉，給學(xué)生更多的選擇。學(xué)生的英語水平不高會導(dǎo)致學(xué)習(xí)缺乏信心，要及時調(diào)整，決不能“揀了芝麻、丟了西瓜”。

3.編制雙語教學(xué)教材資料是實施雙語教學(xué)的根本

教材是開展雙語教學(xué)的載體，沒有教材，雙語教學(xué)便成了“無源之水”。雙語教學(xué)的開展必須由依托外語原版教材和教學(xué)參考書為依托，這樣才能保證師生接觸到“原汁原味”的專業(yè)內(nèi)容，也避免一些“誤譯”。但目前受到信息傳播、資金、適用性等方面的限制，使用原版教材困難較大。解決的辦法主要有:①通過對原版教材進(jìn)行改編、整合，利用網(wǎng)絡(luò)知識積累雙語教學(xué)素材;②增加錄像、多媒體等視聽教材;③充分利用現(xiàn)有的雙語教學(xué)參考書目和學(xué)科教材等手段，根據(jù)雙語教學(xué)的目的、任務(wù)、現(xiàn)有條件，組織專業(yè)教師、外語專家等相關(guān)人員編制適用于本專業(yè)的教材。

4.完善的政策支持是開展雙語教學(xué)的保障

雙語教學(xué)是一個復(fù)雜的系統(tǒng)工程，牽涉到諸多方面的改革:如教學(xué)體制、考試制度、學(xué)生評價體系等。雙語教學(xué)不僅需要教師、學(xué)生的努力，同時，還需要學(xué)校和整個社會的配合及政策支持。首先，應(yīng)加大雙語教學(xué)的獎勵措施。勿庸置疑，雙語教學(xué)的老師和學(xué)生要付出更多的時間和精力才能達(dá)到較好的教學(xué)效果，學(xué)校在制定有關(guān)政策時應(yīng)予以充分考慮，如增加雙語教師的業(yè)績工作量，對率先實施雙語教學(xué)并取得良好教學(xué)效果的老師給予必要的獎勵，對學(xué)生雙語考試的成績予以備注說明(為學(xué)生就業(yè)考慮)，以及在同樣學(xué)時情況下給學(xué)生提供更多的學(xué)分優(yōu)勢等，激勵廣大教師和學(xué)生積極參與到雙語教學(xué)中來。其次，要建立雙語教學(xué)效果的評估體系，使雙語教學(xué)做到有章可循，如雙語教學(xué)英語使用的比例，考試命題與答題是否要用英語以及評估雙語教學(xué)質(zhì)量的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)等等。

[參　考　文　獻(xiàn)]

[1]　盧丹懷.雙語教育面臨新挑戰(zhàn)[J].全球教育展望，2001，(10):55-59.

[2]　謝雨萍.關(guān)于旅游管理專業(yè)雙語教學(xué)的實踐與思考[J].桂林旅游高等專科學(xué)校學(xué)報，2005，(4):94-96.

[3]　鄧俊，蔣昕.論旅游高等教育中的雙語教學(xué)實踐[J].旅游學(xué)刊·旅游人才與教育教學(xué)特刊，2003:38-41.